Do you know who conquered the Sumerians?

The Sumerians lived in the area around the lower Euphrates River, known today as southern Iraq and Kuwait. Their culture, which dates to 3000 B.C. is considered by many to be the world's first civilization. Around 2400 B.C., their northern neighbor Sargon I, king of Akkad, an ancient region in what is now central Iraq, rallied his troops and marched south into Sumer. Within a 50-year period, he had taken control. But, Sumer was not his only conquest. The battles continued as he formed what historians recognize as the world's first empire - the Akkadian Empire.

What did Charlemagne's missi dominici do?

Missi dominici, which literally translates as "messengers of the lord," were officials with special authority to supervise the rest of the empire's leaders. These messengers were to inspect every part of the empire each year. To make sure these missi addressed all issues, Charlemagne had them travel in pairs, with one representing the government and the other representing the church. The missi carried two types of documents: an imperial order with written instructions and commands directly related to a particular area and an authorization that gave missi the right to lodging, transportation, and provisions in the area assigned to them.

Who were the Huns?

The term "Hun" is generally used to refer to the peoples of central Asia who began to invade China, India, Persia, and the Roman Empire in great numbers between the third century B.C. and the sixth century A.D. Although historians have not yet found conclusive proof that all the invaders had the same roots, history has classified them as one group called the Huns. We do know all the tribes shared several traits. They were seminomadic peoples, that is, they did not travel constantly but seem to have kept the same summer and winter quarters. Their houses, called yurts, were large, tentlike structures that were easily assembled and reassembled.

I've read of the inscriptions Emperor Ashoka of India had carved on stone pillars and sides of large rocks. Can you give me an example of one?

Here's one from Edict 12: One should honor another person's beliefs, for by so doing one increases the influence of one's own beliefs and benefits those of another person. By doing otherwise, one lessens the influence of one's own beliefs and harms those of another person.

What was the Code of Hammurabi?

Hammurabi was the sixth king of the first Babylonian Amorite dynasty. Around 1790 B.C., he tried to unite the lands under his control by establishing a set of laws that became known as the Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi was not the actual author of the code. In fact, the laws had been in existence since the time of the Sumerians, who lived centuries earlier. Hammurabi thought that re-introducing the laws would help him achieve his goal. He had the 300 laws inscribed on stone pillars for all to see. To date, the Babylonians are one of the first civilizations to have had a written law code.

What can you tell me about the Chinook Indians?

The Chinook were masters of fishing, especially for salmon, and good hunters as well. They lived on land bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Columbia River in the area known today as Washington State (in the U.S.) and British Columbia (in Canada). The explorers Lewis and Clark on their journey westward visited with the Chinook in 1805. According to their accounts, the Chinook lived in plank houses and ate local fish, roots, and berries.

I know the Iliad and the Odyssey are the Greek epics, but what is the Persian epic?

One of the most popular works in the Persian-speaking world today is the Shah-nameh ("Book of Kings"), which tells of the trials and triumphs of Iran's past. It also tells of Zarathushtra, the founder of Zoroastrianism. It was the Persian poet Ferdowsi, who was born around 935 B.C.E. in Iran, who updated and reworked the tale, which included 60,000 verses in its final form.

Was salt used as money in ancient times?

While gold, silk, and spices may be considered luxuries, salt is a necessity. As both our blood and body cells contain salt, it is essential to life. In ancient times, salt was so precious that it served as money and was often traded for the same weight in gold. Some of the earliest trade routes were established to transport salt. Before refrigerators were invented, people used salt to help preserve meat and fish. Even today, brine (salt water) is used to pickle vegetables. To understand how important an ingredient salt is, try going without it for an entire day.

Who invented the wheel?

Historians have used a pictograph dating to approximately 3500 B.C.E as evidence that the Sumerians, who lived in the southern area of what is today Iraq, were the first to develop the wheel. Historians also credit the Sumerians with the invention of the potter's wheel, which came into use in Mesopotamia around the same time.

What are conservators, and what do they do?

Conservators are specialists in the preservation, treatment, repair, and restoration of what is called "cultural property." This includes buildings and public monuments, as well as smaller objects in museums. Conservators need to know the history of the objects on which they work, how they were made, what makes them deteriorate, and what can be done to prevent or correct problems. Conservators generally specialize in one type of object - for example, paintings, furniture, porcelain, or historic houses.

What did people write on in the Middle Ages in Europe?

Actually, few people knew how to read and write at that time. Those who did were mostly churchmen who had learned to read and write so that they could chant prayers. They wrote on fine leather, called "vellum" if it was made from calf skin and "parchment" if it was made from goat- or sheepskin. For pens, they used sharpened bird quills or reeds. Ink was made from soot or boiled oak galls (swellings on oak trees left by gall moths), mixed with gum and acid. Books were valuable, and often decorated with gold, colored paint, and jewels.

Why is your magazine named for Calliope, and not Clio?

Good question! In Greek and Roman mythology, Calliope was the leader of the Muses, nine goddesses who were the daughters of the chief god Zeus (Jupiter to the Romans) and the goddess of memory. Each protected and inspired a branch of the arts and sciences. Clio was honored as the patroness of history; Calliope, as the patroness of epic poetry and eloquence (the art of speaking or writing in a manner that is vivid, forceful, graceful, and persuasive). When we were deciding on a name for the magazine in 1980, we did consider Clio, as the magazine certainly would come under her protection. However, after much thought, we chose CALLIOPE, because we wanted the articles not just to relate history, but to do so eloquently.

Did the ancients have yogurt?

Definitely! It seems that yogurt probably originated thousands of years ago, as soon as people began to keep and milk herd animals, which is thousands of years ago. Excavated finds suggest that sheep and goats were domesticated in Eurasia sometime between 11,000 and 9,500 years ago, and cows about 8,500 years ago. The ancients knew that milk spoils quickly, and so they took advantage of this fact to turn milk into yogurt, sour cream, and cheese. The ancient peoples of central Asia spent much of their time on horseback, and it is believed that they made yogurt in their leather saddlebags. The movement of the horses would jostle the milk and lactic acid bacteria in the saddlebags, and and the warmth of their bodies would promote the fermentation process. The result was a yogurt made "on-the-go"!

Why is the Red Sea red?

This "mystical sea" derives its name from the plant life that lives in it. The Red Sea is the home of Trichodesmium erythraeum - blue algae. Algae is a simple plant that grows in water - think seaweed. This algae actually turns the water the orange-red color that gives it its name. To learn more about the Red Sea, check out the Great Rift Valley system at: www.marekinc.com/Geo Overview-GreatRift.html

Why did civilizations settle near rivers?

For thousands of years, people have considered rivers - actually any type of waterway - an ideal place for a settlement. They offer many obvious benefits - water to drink and to irrigate crops. In ancient times, irrigation was certainly not what it is now in, say, present-day Iowa, but it was a hot commodity. Water - both fresh and salt - also provides a great means of transporting goods and people easily and efficiently. Just look at the early traders along the Mississippi River. Think of it this way - is it easier to carry 18 bearskins 30 miles or to put them on a raft and float them down a waterway?

What's the importance of studying ancient world history?

The renowned Roman statesman and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero once wrote, "To be ignorant of what happened before you were born is to always remain a child." Studying history - ancient and not-so-ancient - helps us gain a clearer picture of the world around us. In Europe during the Renaissance (between 1490 and 1632), Cicero's statement had many believers, and the study of ancient texts became more popular than it had been for centuries. Why not try a test yourself? You might read Cicero's defense of the poet Archias. Or, branch out beyond Europe, to China perhaps, and read a few of the Chinese philosopher Confucius's teachings. Then, relate the thoughts to today and how they might help a particular problem - yours or the world's!

What does Machu Picchu mean? Where is it?

Machu Picchu translates into English as "Old Peak." Located in the Andes Mountains in southern Peru, it is separated by canyons from Huayna Picchu, which translates as "New Peak." Today, only the roofless ruins remain of the Inca city on Machu Picchu. It was to this city that the Inca royalty fled to escape Spanish invaders in the mid-1500s. In 1911, explorer Hiram Bingham led the Yale University Peruvian Expedition to Machu Picchu. Following the advice of a farmer about ruins buried under overgrowth, Bingham forged his way over rocks and ridges until he suddenly came upon the remains of an ancient city. He named it Machu Picchu after the mountain.

What is the Nibelungenlied?

The Nibelungenlied is a German epic poem that was written around a.d. 1200 by an unknown Austrian living near the Danube River. The title translates into English as "Song of the Nibelungs." The first section of the poem focuses on a princess named Kriemhild and a prince named Siegfried, who wishes to marry her. Jealousy and suspicion within the royal circles eventually result in Siegfried's murder and Kriemhild's absence from the court. The second part of the epic deals with Kriemhild's plans to avenge her husband's tragic death. In both sections, Siegfried's treasure, the treasure of the Nibelungs, creates problems and arouses anger. In the 1800s, using the Nibelungenlied as his base, the German composer Richard Wagner wrote one of the world's best-known operas, Der Ring des Nibelungen ("The Ring of the Nibelung").

Did a man named Parmenion warn Alexander the Great about an assassination attempt?

Not long after Alexander the Great crossed into Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) - sometime in 334 B.C. - he had a high fever and such cramps that his doctors thought he would die. One doctor, however, a man named Philip, asked to treat Alexander with a particular medicine. Alexander agreed. While Philip prepared the potion, a messenger brought a letter addressed to Alexander. Seeing that it was from his trusted general Parmenion, Alexander opened it immediately. "I have heard that someone has tried to bribe Philip to poison you. Please take care," wrote Parmenion. Alexander looked at the drink Philip had just placed before him. After looking at the physician's face for any trace of expression, he then handed Philip the letter and drank the medicine. Dismayed at the contents of the letter, Phillip assured Alexander that he had nothing to fear and that the medicine, if taken as prescribed, would cure him. Alexander followed the doctor's orders and was soon well. Such faith and trust clearly illustrates how Alexander inspired loyalty and confidence among his troops.

Why was Bloody Mary called Bloody Mary?

Mary Tudor (1516-1558) was given the name "Bloody Mary" because of her persecution of the Protestants in an attempt to restore Catholicism to England. During her reign as queen of England (1553-1558), approximately 300 people were burned at the stake. Upon her death, her half-sister, Elizabeth I, ascended the throne.

Who is Vittorino da Fletre? What kind of school did he open? Where?

Vittorino da Fletre was an Italian teacher who, in 1423, opened a school in Mantua, Italy. His goal was to develop each student's character and to prepare each for the competitive outside world. His students were children of princes and leaders from all over Italy. Later, he opened enrollment to include gifted children from poorer families. The basic courses were Greek, Latin, and the study of Greek and Roman culture. His school was the forerunner of the private school in the United States.

Was Charlemagne, who ruled what is now France and Germany around a.d. 800, married? Did he have children?

Yes. He was married four times and had many children. Shortly after his first marriage to Desiderata, Charlemagne divorced her and married Hildegard. Not much is known about Hildegard except that she died young. Charlemagne then married his third wife, Fastrada, who also died early. Charlemagne's fourth wife was Liutgard. Charlemagne is said to have loved his children dearly and mourned the death of three who died young. According to the biographer Einhard, "His emotions as a father, which were very deeply rooted, made him burst into tears."

Can you tell me how the Tollund man died?

The Tollund man was uncovered in the narrow bog of Jutland Moss in Denmark in 2000. His head was remarkably well preserved - almost as if he had died recently and not around 210 B.C. - the date according to radiocarbon testing. The man seems to have died from unnatural causes - the noose around his neck was most likely the cause, as no other parts of his body appear to have been harmed in any way. Analysis of his stomach shows that he ate a porridge made of seeds some 12 to 24 hours before his death. The reason for his death is uncertain, but many speculate that he died as an executed criminal or as a sacrificial victim. For more information, check out: www.silkeborgmuseum.dk/english/index.html

Who was Sinan?

A slave born in 1489 of Greek parents, Sinan was taken as a child to Istanbul (in present-day Turkey) to be trained as a Janissary - a member of an elite corps of Ottoman soldiers, all of whom had been born Christian. From their base in Istanbul, Ottoman leaders ruled much of the Mediterranean world. Sinan received excellent schooling and then proved his skill as the chief of artillery, designing siege equipment, fortifications, and bridges. He was responsible for many structures still standing today in Istanbul and for restoring numerous buildings in Baghdad and Jerusalem.

What did Marie Antoinette mean when she said "Let them eat cake"?

Marie Antoinette was not a well-liked queen. The wife of King Louis XVI of France, she was known for her lack of responsibility and her complete disregard for the plight of the peasants. Tradition has it that in 1789, just as the French Revolution began, she showed her disregard for French peasants, many of whom were starving, when she told them to eat cake. Is this remark based on fact or just tradition? Many historians do not believe that she made the thoughtless remark. While it's possible that she did, what is more important is that, even without proof, people believed the story, signaling their disdain for the queen. A little known fact is that the phrase was not original. According to political philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, a princess had said those exact words to the French peasants 15 years before Marie Antoinette was even born!